These sites were not included in the above description. However, lesioning the nucleus of origin did not alter the VP fibers in the proposed projection region, a finding that suggested that the contribution was minor compared to inputs from other sites. Early studies where individual neurons were stained and followed to other brain sites showed many more possible projection pathways ( Buijs 1978 1980 Sofroniew 1980 Sofroniew and Weindl 1978). The projection systems described above are based primarily on lesioning and retrograde-tracing ( De Vries and Buijs 1983 Hoorneman and Buijs 1982 Otero-Garcia et al. The VP neurons in the PVN project to the pituitary, the spinal cord, and amygdala ( Buijs 1978 1980 Hernandez et al. 2013 Sofroniew 1980 Sofroniew and Weindl 1978). The VP neurons in the SCN project to the vascular organ of the lamina terminalis, the periventricular nucleus, the PVN, and the dorsomedial hypothalamus ( Buijs 1978 1980 Hoorneman and Buijs 1982 Rood et al. The VP neurons in the BST project to the lateral septum, amygdala, ventral pallidum, lateral habenular nucleus, the periventricular gray, and the locus coeruleus ( De Vries and Buijs 1983 Otero-Garcia et al. The VP neurons in the medial amygdala have been found to project to the hippocampus, BST, and lateral septum ( Caffe et al. This variation seems to mostly stem from the technique used to identify the source of the fibers and perhaps species as well. Thus, emerging studies using a combination of immunohistochemical procedures to localize protein and RNA can be expected to find a broad brain regional distribution of VP neurons beyond the traditionally known hypothalamic and extended amygdala regions.Ī map showing known projections of the VP containing neurons can be seen in figure 1, however studies vary widely on which fibers come from which brain region. These later studies suggest that VP may be synthesized in the cell body of neurons and rapidly transported to terminal regions. 2010) and mRNA gene arrays have reported VP expression in the nucleus accumbens ( Rodriguez-Borrero et al. Other studies using a VP reporter mouse have found VP neurons in the retina and olfactory bulbs ( Moritoh et al. The colchicine experiments suggest that traditional immunohistochemistry techniques alone will not identify low expression VP neurons that might have functions outside the high expression regions, e.g. Colchicine, which is thought to cause cell body accumulation of proteins normally localized to fibers, has revealed staining in other brain regions including the locus coeruleus and septum ( DeVries et al. 2016 Rood and De Vries 2011 Sofroniew 1983 Song and Albers 2017). Smaller quantities have been found in the Bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BST), and medial amygdala ( DeVries et al. VP containing neurons are found most abundantly in the paraventricular nucleus (PVN), suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), and supraoptic nucleus (SON) of the hypothalamus. In both adult mice and rats detailed immunohistchemical studies mapped the location of VP immunopositive neurons and their fibers. Arginine vasopressin (VP also known as antidiuretic hormone or ADH) is a nine amino acid peptide known to be involved in a number of physiological and behavioral effects.
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